Air quality & energy · 2022
Which countries’ energy creates the most air pollution?
The most polluting energy systems emit 19× more air pollution per unit of energy than the cleanest. Pakistan releases 1099.6 g of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides for every gigajoule of energy it uses; Netherlands releases just 56.8 g.
This measures air-quality pollutants: sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), per gigajoule of primary energy. These are the gases that cause smog, acid rain and lung disease. They are not greenhouse gases: this is about the air people breathe, not the climate. See production greenhouse gases for the carbon side.
Sources: Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024 (SO₂, NOₓ, PM2.5); Energy Institute Statistical Review of World Energy (primary energy). Data year 2022. Site updated August 13, 2026.
Key facts · 2022
| Most polluting energy | Pakistan (1099.6) |
| Cleanest energy | Netherlands (56.8) |
| Gap, highest vs lowest | 19× |
| Median | 302.0 g/GJ |
| Countries ranked | 39 |
| Pollutants | SO₂ + NOₓ |
Air pollution is not the same as carbon
Carbon dioxide warms the planet but is harmless to breathe. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and the fine particles they form are different: they trigger asthma, heart and lung disease, acid rain and smog, and are responsible for millions of early deaths a year. A country can run a high-carbon energy system that is relatively clean for local air, or a coal-heavy one that is both. This page is about that second, breathable dimension: how much conventional pollution a country’s energy releases per unit of energy delivered.
Air-pollutant intensity of energy by country
Grams of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides per gigajoule (g/GJ) of primary energy, 2022. Click a column to sort. 39 major energy users with reported pollutant data.
| Country | SO₂+NOₓ (g/GJ) | SO₂ | NOₓ | PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Energy (EJ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pakistan | 1099.6 | 608.0 | 491.6 | 57.1 | 3.4 |
| South Africa | 950.9 | 596.4 | 354.5 | 26.9 | 4.7 |
| Indonesia | 910.6 | 373.7 | 536.9 | 19.0 | 10.2 |
| Iraq | 726.7 | 349.1 | 377.6 | 59.3 | 2.2 |
| Uzbekistan | 706.6 | 512.3 | 194.3 | 31.7 | 2.0 |
| Kazakhstan | 682.8 | 365.0 | 317.8 | 17.7 | 2.9 |
| Philippines | 679.9 | 376.7 | 303.2 | 23.9 | 2.3 |
| Vietnam | 648.5 | 338.1 | 310.4 | 25.5 | 3.8 |
| India | 600.4 | 327.8 | 272.6 | 49.9 | 34.3 |
| Turkiye | 568.0 | 444.8 | 123.3 | 26.9 | 6.7 |
| Saudi Arabia | 514.5 | 300.7 | 213.9 | 76.1 | 11.3 |
| Mexico | 417.3 | 269.9 | 147.4 | 17.1 | 7.8 |
| Argentina | 385.0 | 35.9 | 349.1 | 15.4 | 3.4 |
| Australia | 366.8 | 188.3 | 178.5 | 5.3 | 5.5 |
| Egypt | 363.9 | 146.0 | 217.9 | 41.7 | 3.8 |
| Brazil | 357.4 | 105.8 | 251.6 | 14.8 | 10.3 |
| Thailand | 340.6 | 114.4 | 226.2 | 23.5 | 5.0 |
| Russia | 314.7 | 172.0 | 142.7 | 11.7 | 30.3 |
| Malaysia | 307.9 | 129.5 | 178.4 | 15.2 | 4.7 |
| Iran | 302.0 | 173.4 | 128.6 | 42.1 | 12.5 |
| Algeria | 231.3 | 19.3 | 212.0 | 19.0 | 2.6 |
| United Arab Emirates | 227.1 | 110.4 | 116.7 | 65.5 | 4.7 |
| Poland | 218.4 | 91.1 | 127.2 | 15.9 | 4.1 |
| Ukraine | 214.3 | 51.3 | 163.0 | 14.0 | 2.4 |
| China | 205.0 | 69.6 | 135.4 | 32.0 | 145.1 |
| Qatar | 190.2 | 96.3 | 94.0 | 108.2 | 2.0 |
| Canada | 164.4 | 52.2 | 112.2 | 6.3 | 11.9 |
| Spain | 134.9 | 25.9 | 109.0 | 12.0 | 5.2 |
| Japan | 121.8 | 29.6 | 92.2 | 12.2 | 17.3 |
| United Kingdom | 108.9 | 17.7 | 91.2 | 10.0 | 6.7 |
| France | 104.2 | 13.8 | 90.4 | 10.5 | 8.3 |
| Italy | 100.5 | 12.9 | 87.5 | 16.3 | 5.9 |
| United States | 92.6 | 18.4 | 74.3 | 7.5 | 92.2 |
| Germany | 90.2 | 22.7 | 67.5 | 9.6 | 11.3 |
| South Korea | 70.9 | 14.1 | 56.9 | 23.3 | 13.1 |
| Singapore | 68.3 | 35.6 | 32.7 | 15.0 | 3.3 |
| Belgium | 60.9 | 9.4 | 51.5 | 10.1 | 2.5 |
| Taiwan | 57.4 | 10.9 | 46.5 | 19.2 | 4.6 |
| Netherlands | 56.8 | 6.5 | 50.3 | 9.6 | 3.2 |
Median 302.0 g/GJ. National SO₂ and NOₓ totals are overwhelmingly from fuel combustion, so per unit of energy is a sound measure of how cleanly a country gets its energy. PM2.5 is the population-weighted concentration people actually breathe.
Dirtier energy, dirtier air
The countries whose energy emits the most SO₂ and NOₓ tend to be the ones where people breathe the most fine-particle pollution. Pakistan’s energy intensity of 1099.6 g/GJ sits alongside PM2.5 exposure of 57.1 µg/m³, many times the World Health Organization guideline of 5, while Netherlands’s cleaner energy (56.8 g/GJ) goes with far lower exposure. Cleaning up how energy is burned is one of the most direct ways to clean the air.
Frequently asked questions
Which countries' energy produces the most air pollution?
In 2022, Pakistan's energy was the most polluting of major energy users, emitting about 1099.6 grams of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides per gigajoule, roughly 19 times Netherlands's 56.8 g/GJ.
Which countries have the cleanest energy for air quality?
Advanced economies with scrubbers, gas and nuclear, led by Netherlands and including the Netherlands, Germany, the United States and France, emit the least SO₂ and NOₓ per unit of energy.
What air pollutants come from energy?
Burning coal, oil and gas releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and other pollutants. SO₂ and NOₓ also react in the air to form more particulates and ozone, the main drivers of smog and acid rain.
Is air pollution the same as carbon emissions?
No. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that warms the climate but is harmless to breathe. SO₂, NOₓ and particulates are air-quality pollutants that directly harm health. A country can have high carbon emissions yet relatively clean local air, or both problems at once.
Does more polluting energy mean worse air to breathe?
Largely yes. The countries whose energy emits the most SO₂ and NOₓ also tend to have the highest PM2.5 exposure, for example Pakistan at 57.1 µg/m³, far above the WHO guideline of 5.
Related pages
Sources: Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024 (SO₂, NOₓ, PM2.5); Energy Institute Statistical Review of World Energy (primary energy). See methodology.